Keywords

1 Introduction

Work-integrated learning (WIL) and its various forms have become an important part of higher education worldwide. Theoretical approaches and models linking academic and practical aspects of learning differ around the globe and among various types and levels of academic programs. Yet the need for developing practical skills and use them for better employability of graduates is quite universal in various post-secondary institutions [1, 2].

The term “work-integrated learning” is an umbrella term referring to various types of experiential education that enhance student learning and allow them to acquire new knowledge, build competencies, and master skills that will be essential to their future employment [3]. During the past 50–60 years, institutions of higher education have practiced various models of experiential learning. The Soviet approach to WIL is among less known examples of these programs. Work-integrated education has been conceptualized and first tried in practice during the years of industrialization in 1920–1930s. Soviet researcher A.K. Gastev had contributed to creating a system of “scientific management” in Soviet Union [4], and WIL was included in that system. Gastev’s ideas were introduced to Soviet higher education in late 1920s—early 1930s by requesting mandatory placements for all university students, and by providing opportunities for continuous education to factory workers. However, the early system of WIL was more of a “trial and error” approach with poor educational quality control of WIL [5]. These initial pitfalls, followed by the second World War have delayed the broader introduction of WIL in Soviet Union, even though individual “factory-to college” institutions continued to function and develop the standards of work-integrated education that were broadly introduced in the late 1950s.

In this paper we will review the progress of WIL in Soviet Union and later in Russian Federation, and we will identify the changes in experiential learning that reflect the broader changes in country’s socio-economic environment. We will start the next section by reviewing the classic WIL model developed in Soviet Union. In the third section we’ll move to its modification illustrated by current statistical data, and followed by theoretical propositions on WIL development. Fourth section will summarize the findings and implications.

2 The History of Success: WIL in Science and Engineering in 1960s–1980s

In late 1950s the Soviet Union had formally launched its WIL educational concept that was primary aimed at boosting economic growth and increasing the competitiveness of planned Soviet economy. The Resolution #1425 introduced by the Council of Ministers of the USSR on December 30, 1959 has initiated the creation of “Factories integrated with Higher Technical Educational Institutions” (FHTEIs). The FHTEI model combined academic study modules with extensive practical work at assigned industrial enterprises. Students were able to complete their education within 6 years, while working full-time and being promoted to advanced technical and managerial positions.

The system of FHTEI work-integrated education had quickly spread to various industries and regions of Soviet Union. Seven FHTEIs were initially established, and their number has increased through 1960–1980s, with 22 FHTEI providing work-integrated education in 1988 [6]. FHTEIs were preparing mostly engineers and other non-management specialists for their assigned industries. The study process included semester-long cycles of theory and practice, with designated study spaces for academic classes and research labs established directly at those factories.

Therefore, the “integration” of higher education and manufacturing enterprises was viewed quite literally, and implemented thorough both creation of designated study spaces at factories, and recruitment of leading specialists and top-level factory managers as course instructors. Industry practitioners with their rich knowledge and industry experience were supplementing faculty members who were coming to FHTEIs for delivering theory classes. Taken together FHTEIs not only contributed to supplying Soviet industrial production with thousands of new university graduates, but they also stimulated applied research and intensive technology development in 1960–1970s.

The history of FHTEIs in the Soviet Union, including their past success, struggle to adapt to changing socio-economic system, and their current development has raised some recent interest of Russian researchers, even though the number of publications on historical roots of FHTEI is very limited. For instance, Lyussev [6] has identified several external and internal factors that have defined the type and the outcomes of work-integrated education in Soviet Union. It seems that external environment had played the key role in setting FHTEIs for success. Soviet government intended to boost the pace of industrial development, and those intentions were in sync with societal needs for post-war development and growth [6]. FHTEIs and their WIL model have provided the opportunities for on-the-job education, professional development, and practice integrated research targeted for the needs of planned economy [7]. Yet the FHTEI system had targeted industrial production only, it required more flexibility to prepare students for work in non-industrial organizations [8]. Overall, the historical evidence demonstrates that the direct integration of academic and experiential learning through FHTEIs has contributed to high pace of innovations, technological development and post-war recovery (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Comparative structure of gross domestic product: Soviet Union and United States of America, % [9]

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FHTEIs educational model allowed for boosting both industrial production and research; it helped to increase the level of post-secondary education, and the number of graduates in the fields of science and engineering. This model has also introduced some elements of work-integrated education (such as mandatory placements) to other institutions of Soviet higher education. Close integration between the institutions of higher education and industrial enterprises was the key to success of Soviet work-integrated education and FHTEIs. Figure 2 illustrates the data on the number of graduates in engineering, economics and legal studies in 1960–1980s showing that the main focus of Soviet higher education was on preparing qualified specialists for industrial production.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Graduates of higher education institutions in Russian Federation (selected programs; measurement unit: thousands of graduates) [9]

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3 Transition to Market: 1990s and Beyond

3.1 Expansion of WIL Model to Other Higher Education Programs

By the end of 1980s the Soviet system of experiential learning was in crisis as it tried to expand the FHTEI model to service organizations, and at the same time to adapt to changing political and socio-economic environment in Soviet Union and later in Russian Federation. Some FHTEIs have extended their WIL programs offering them to students in science, engineering, and management disciplines [10]. Other FHTEIs kept their focus on science and engineering programs only, but began to establish broader partnerships between state-owned and private industrial enterprises, research centers and institutions of higher education [11]. In turbulent 1990s the number of traditional FHTEIs and their WIL programs has decreased, partially due to the closure of some factories assigned for delivery of FHTEI programs. The number of students enrolled in various types of programs has changed, too. Nowadays more students are interested in studying social sciences, and other service-oriented disciplines (Table 1).

Table 1 Number of students enrolled in various higher education programs (Russian Federation, thousands of students) [14, 15]
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With the change of programs and enrolment numbers the structure of WIL had to be updated, too. One element of WIL that has been successfully applied across institutions of higher education, and has survived the transition from planned to market economy was related to mandatory “placements”. Most programs in various fields of study required one to two placements prior to graduation. However, both the duration and the content of placements became more tailored to specific academic programs.

In recent years the focus of WIL in Russia is shifting from developing and practicing fairly narrow professional skills to a broader set of professional and general competencies that allow students and graduates to be more flexible, and adapt to changing job market requirements. This change may be attributed to the fact that the system of post-secondary education in Russia is moving towards international educational models and standards. The elements of experiential learning are being introduced to Federal Educational Standards for various programs of professional (college), higher, and continuous education. Institutions of higher education are changing their WIL programs by introducing interdisciplinary skills and “cross-professional competencies” required in modern, service-oriented and “digital” economy [12, 13].

These changes are in line with global trends in WIL, and with the need to develop broader, or generic skills including individual and teamwork research, communication, and knowledge integration [16,17,18].

3.2 Modification of WIL Towards Development of Generic vs. Professional Skills

Russian Federal Educational Standards require that students be provided with various options of experiential learning, including individual and group projects, job placements, and graduation theses. To illustrate the modern approach to more generalized WIL experiences we have collected the data on individual projects completed by first-year students enrolled in six programs at Siberian University of Consumer Cooperation. Programs in science and technology included Information Technologies, Technology of Public Catering, and Commodity Research and Expertise of Consumer Goods. Social sciences and service programs included Economics and Management, Legal Studies and Social Services, Tourism and Hospitality. The convenience sample contains 597 individual projects completed in 2018–2019 academic year, and it illustrates the interest for developing pre-professional, generic skills across various programs of study (Table 2).

Table 2 Subject areas selected for individual research projects by students in six academic programs (measurement unit: number of projects)
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These individual projects can be considered an early introduction to experiential learning; they allow students to do independent research, develop critical thinking and communication skills. Analysis of the topics in our sample has indicated that projects were quite equally distributed among several disciplines: about 22% were related to mathematics and computer sciences, another 22%—to natural sciences, 26%—to social sciences, 18%—to humanities, and 12% to sports and recreation. Among all projects 11.2% covered inter-disciplinary topics. Students enrolled in science and technology programs were inclined to choose disciplines and topics closely related to their programs of study, while students enrolled in service-oriented programs worked on topics related to greater variety of disciplines, often outside of their core subject areas.

This example illustrates the point that nowadays experiential learning not only moves beyond development of professional skills, but it also focuses on developing generic, flexible skills that may be of value in areas beyond student’s immediate study program and their future profession.

As part of further theory building we propose that the evolution of work-integrated education is associated with the type of socio-economic system (industrial vs. post-industrial society).

Proposition 1

The type of knowledge and skills expected of university graduates are based on the needs of modern economy that is service-oriented, fast changing, innovative and global in nature.

Proposition 2

Service-oriented programs will provide more opportunities for developing generic skills and competencies as part of experiential learning, while programs in science and engineering will focus on developing more specialized professional skills while allowing for some opportunities for developing generic skills and competencies.

4 Discussion and Conclusion

To test these propositions, it would be interesting to compare the structure of WIL components in various programs and see whether the elements of experiential learning, and associated skills and competencies would vary among science, engineering, management, and other service programs.

Better understanding of the types of experiential learning and associated skills has practical implications related to revision of existing programs, as well as development of the new ones so they would fit to fast-changing global economy. For instance, the data obtained from Siberian University of Consumer Cooperation indicates that early in their study students are interested in developing interdisciplinary, generic skills that in the future may enhance their chosen profession. The sample also shows that the interest to social sciences and service-based programs is high: 2/3 of first year students are enrolled in academic programs that are not related to science or technology. Service-oriented programs used to support the main “historic” programs of Siberian University of Consumer Cooperation, yet nowadays they have become the leading programs in terms of enrolment and revenue generation. This is in line with country-wide trends in higher education. Therefore, institutions of higher education need to monitor the changes in manufacturing and service sectors of economy, and respond to emerging educational demands by developing new programs and approaches to experiential learning.

Lessons learnt from the past experiences of WIL demonstrate that experiential learning responds to the broader societal needs, including the changes in higher education, and the main directions of economic development. Recent changes in patterns of socio-economic development around the globe require more generic skills. Overall, flexible set of skills and competencies is expected of graduates in all disciplines.