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Hate Crimes: Perspectives on Offending and the Law

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Handbook on Crime and Deviance

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Abstract

Crime and violence motivated by hatred and bigotry, what we now refer to as hate or bias crime, is a centuries-old problem. However, a coherent body of law that explicitly punishes this conduct only emerged in the late 20th century. The first hate crime laws were enacted in the early 1980s, and today these laws appear in the criminal codes of 45 states and in federal law. The specific features of hate crime laws differ from state to state, but there is no doubt that hate crime has been firmly institutionalized in American jurisprudence, and it represents a type of behavior that governments seek to curtail and scholars try to understand and predict.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Each identifies prohibited conduct followed by list of groups protected under the law. For instance, the FBI (2018) defines hate crime as a “criminal offense against a person or property motivated in whole or in part by an offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity.” This is logically similar to the 1968 CRA’s prohibition of intimidation “of any person because of his race, color, religion, sex, handicap…or national origin” [Title IX, Sec. 901 (a)].

  2. 2.

    Four years later, the HCSA was amended to include disability among the protected categories (Public Law 103-322) and was to be carried out “for each calendar year” instead of “the succeeding four years” as part of the Church Arson Prevention Act (Public Law 104-155).

  3. 3.

    In addition to these laws, some scholars also consider the Violence Against Women Act (Public Law 103-322) as a type of hate crime law. This law, among other provisions, declares that persons have a right to be free from crimes motivated by gender (see Jenness, 2007, p. 148 for an overview).

  4. 4.

    The five states without criminal hate crime laws are Arkansas, Georgia, Indiana, South Carolina and Wyoming. Georgia previously had a hate crime law but it was declared unconstitutional by the Georgia Supreme Court in 2004.

  5. 5.

    For a full description of the Wisconsin penalty enhancement statute, see The Wisconsin Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (2017, p. 8).

  6. 6.

    Two additional types of laws that could be considered hate crime statutes are laws that prohibit cross burning and institutional vandalism statutes. The latter criminalizes damage to places of worship and hence are more narrowly framed than other criminal hate crime laws.

  7. 7.

    See Jenness and Grattet (2001, Chap. 2) for a listing and description of key social movement organizations.

  8. 8.

    In addition to criticisms stemming from the First Amendment, critics have also challenged hate crime laws on Fourteenth Amendment grounds. From this perspective, hate crime laws are either void for vagueness because it is unclear what qualifies as “hate motivated,” or they allegedly violate the Equal Protection Clause because some groups receive greater protection than others. While some appellate court cases have dealt with these issues, the First Amendment sits at the heart of the debate and is the focus of most appellate court cases (see Jenness & Grattet, 2001, Chap. 5 and Phillips & Grattet, 2000 for a discussion of appellate court arguments).

  9. 9.

    For elaboration on these and related constitutional issues, see Abramovsky (1992), Gellman (1991), Gellman and Lawrence (2004), Gould (2005), Jacobs and Potter (1998, Chap. 8), and Lawrence (1999). For a sociological analysis of court cases dealing with hate crime, see Phillips and Grattet (2000).

  10. 10.

    The assertion that hate crimes have a more devastating impact on victims than comparable non-hate crimes remains an open question (Iganski & Lagou, 2015).

  11. 11.

    Justice Scalia’s majority opinion was accompanied by three concurring opinions. These opinions, delivered by Justices White, Blackmun, and Stevens, reached the same conclusion but via different routes. Justice White, for instance, argued that the statute was overbroad because it encompassed speech that was clearly protected by the First Amendment. Justice Stevens went so far as to disagree with the logic of Scalia’s majority opinion, but ultimately agreed that the statute was unconstitutional because it overreached and prohibited some protected speech.

  12. 12.

    General orders express an agencies’ policies and procedures for specific issues, such as use of force or, in this case, responding to hate crime.

  13. 13.

    The concept of perviousness is measured by community policing and engagement with community groups.

  14. 14.

    For example, policing agencies in Alabama did not submit any hate crime data that year, and only a small percentage of law enforcement agencies in several other states submitted hate crime reports (see United States Department of Justice, 1995, Table 1).

  15. 15.

    To cite two of many examples, then candidate Trump suggested on June 16, 2015, that Mexican immigrants “have lots of problems… They’re bringing drugs. They’re bringing crime. They’re rapists.” Later that year, he falsely claimed that thousands of Muslims cheered on September 11th, 2001, as the towers fell.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University, 238 Townshend Hall, 1885 Neil Avenue Mall, Columbus, OH, 43085, USA

    Ryan D. King

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  1. Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Marvin D. Krohn

  2. Department of Criminal Justice, Radford University, Radford, VA, USA

    Nicole Hendrix

  3. School of Criminal Justice, University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA

    Gina Penly Hall

  4. School of Criminal Justice, University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA

    Alan J. Lizotte

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King, R.D. (2019). Hate Crimes: Perspectives on Offending and the Law. In: Krohn, M., Hendrix, N., Penly Hall, G., Lizotte, A. (eds) Handbook on Crime and Deviance. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20779-3_22

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