Abstract
Although many studies since the late nineteenth century have examined racial, ethnic, and criminal issues, their interrelatedness is still the subject of controversy and discussion among sociologists. Throughout this article, the intersections among crime, prison, race, ethnicity, and state are examined, revealing that the state has a central role in the reproduction and production of social inequalities and direct criminalization of certain ethno-racial groups. This reflection began with a review of the literature on crime associated with racial and ethnic groups in North American and European contexts, which traces the central role of social inequalities in the explanation of the phenomena under study. After this theoretical reflection, a study developed in Portugal is presented, which illustrates precisely that the pathways to prison of individuals of certain foreign and ethnic groups must be understood in two ways: (1) not only in terms of objective living conditions, which are a result of various social inequalities in life, leading them more easily to prison, (2) but also in terms of the role that the criminal justice system itself plays, with difficulty in accessing law and justice, which makes it easier for individuals to be caught and maintained in the justice system. Finally, struggles and dilemmas are discussed while the research considers a theoretical and practical understanding of criminal phenomena connected to race, ethnicity, and nationality at the political level.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Albrecht, H. (1991). Ethnic minorities: Crime and criminal justice in Europe. In F. Heidensohn & M. Farrell (Eds.), Crime in Europe (pp. 84–100). London, England: Routledge Publication.
Albrecht, H. (1997a). Ethnic minorities, crime, and criminal justice in Germany. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Ethnicity, crime, and immigration. Comparative and cross-national perspectives (pp. 31–99). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Albrecht, H. (1997b). Minorities, crime, and criminal justice in the Federal Republic of Germany. In I. H. Marshall (Ed.), Minorities, migrants, and crime: Diversity and similarity across Europe and the United States (pp. 86–109). New York: Sage Publications.
Alonso, C., Garoupa, N., Perera, M., & Vazquez, P. (2008). Immigration and crime in Spain, 1999–2006. Madrid, Spain: Fundaciòn de Estudios de Economia Aplicada.
Barberet, R., & García-España, E. (1997). Minorities, crime, and criminal justice in Spain. In I. H. Marshall (Ed.), Minorities, migrants, and crime: Diversity and similarity across Europe and the United States (pp. 175–197). New York: Sage Publications.
Becker, H. (1963). Outsiders – Studies in the sociology of deviance. New York: The Free Press.
Bonger, W. (1943). Race and crime. New York: Columbia University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1979). La distinction. Critique sociale du jugement. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit.
Bourdieu, P. (1980). Le sens pratique. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit.
Bowling, B., & Phillips, C. (2002). Racism, crime, and justice. London: Longman.
Burgess-Proctor, A. (2006). Intersections of race, class, gender, and crime: Future directions for feminist criminology. Feminist Criminology, 1(1), 27–47.
Carvalho, M. (2007). A construção da imagem dos imigrantes e das minorias étnicas pela imprensa portuguesa: Uma análise comparativa de dois jornais diários (Master Dissertation). Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa, Lisboa, Portugal.
Cole, D. (1998). No equal justice: Race and class in the American Criminal Justice System. The New Press.
Coleman, R., Sim, J., Tombs, S., & Whyte, D. (2009). State, power, crime. New York: Sage Publications.
Council of Europe Annual Penal Statistics. (2010). SPACE I, Servey 2008, Strasbourg.
Cunha, M. (2001). Entre o Bairro e a Prisão: Tráfico e Trajectos (PhD Thesis). Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal.
Cunha, M. I. (2005). Les Gitans, la prison et le quartier: une relation spécifique devenue le modèle ordinaire”. Études Tsiganes, Association des Études Tsiganes, pp. 34–47.
Cunha, M. (2010). Race, crime and criminal justice in Portugal. In A. Kalunta-Crumpton (Ed.), Race, crime and criminal justice: Internacional perspectives (pp. 144–161). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dores, A. (2013). A luta dos presos pela justiça. In A. Dores & J. Preto (Eds.), Segredos das Prisões. Lousã, Portugal: RCP Edições.
DuBois, W. (1899). The Philadelphia Negro: A social study. New York: Benjamin Blom.
DuBois, W. (Ed.). (1904). Some notes on Negro crime, particularly in Georgia – Proceedings of the Ninth Atlanta Conference for the study of Negro problems. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University.
Engbersen, G., & Van der Leun, J. (2001). Panopticum Europe and the criminalisation of undocumented immigrants. In Sixth International Metropolis Conference. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Esteves, A., & Malheiros, J. (2001). Os Cidadãos Estrangeiros nas Prisões Portuguesas: Sobrerepresentação ou ilusão? In M. Pinheiro, L. Baptista, & M. J. Vaz (Eds.), Cidade e Metrópole: Centralidades e Marginalidades (pp. 95–114). Oeiras, Portigal: Celta Editora.
Ferin-Cunha, I., Policarpo, V., Monteiro, T., & Figueiras, R. (2007). Media and discrimination: An exploratory study on the Portuguese case. Biblioteca Online de Ciências da Comunicação. Retrieved January 19, 2017, from http://www.bocc.ubi.pt/pag/ferin-isabel-media-and-discrimination.pdf
FitzGerald, M. (1997). Minorities, crime, and criminal justice in Britain. In I. H. Marshall (Ed.), Minorities, migrants, and crime: Diversity and similarity across Europe and the United States (pp. 36–61). New York: Sage Publications.
Gabbidon, S. (2010). Race, ethnicity, crime, and justice. An international dilemma. New York: Sage Publications.
Garland, D. (Ed.). (2001). Mass imprisonment: Social causes and consequences. London: Sage Publications.
Gomes, S. (2014). Caminhos para a Prisão. Famalicão, Portugal: Húmus Editora.
Gomes, S. (2017). Access to law and justice perceived by Foreign and Roma prisoners. Race and justice. Article first published online: March 30, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1177/2153368717699972
Guia, M. J. (2008). Imigração e Criminalidade – Caleidoscópio de Imigrantes Reclusos. Coimbra, Portugal: Edições Almedina.
Haan, W. (1997). Minorities, crime, and criminal justice in the Netherlands. In H. I. Marshall (Ed.), Minorities, migrants, and crime: Diversity and similarity across Europe and the United States (pp. 198–223). New York: Sage Publications.
Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J., & Roberts, B. (1978). Policing the crisis: Mugging, the state, and law and order. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hawkins, D. (1995). Ethnicity, race, and crime: A review of selected studies. In D. Hawkins (Ed.), Ethnicity, race, and crime: Perspectives across time and place (pp. 11–45). New York: State University of New York Press.
Heitzeg, N. (2011). Differentials in deviance: Race, class, gender and age. In C. D. Bryant (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of deviant behaviour (pp. 53–59). New York: Routledge.
Jackson, P. (1995). Minority group threat, crime, and the mobilization of law in France. In D. F. Hawkins (Ed.), Ethnicity, race, and crime: Perspectives across time and place (pp. 341–359). New York: State University of New York Press.
Jackson, P. (1997). Minorities, crime, and criminal justice in France. In I. H. Marshal (Ed.), Minorities, migrants, and crime: Diversity and similarity across Europe and the United States (pp. 130–150). New York: Sage Publications.
Kensey, A. (1999). Détenus étrangers. Cahiers de démographie pénitentiaire, Ministère de la Justice, 6.
Loury, G. (2008). Race, incarceration, and American values. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Marshall, I. H. (1997a). Minorities, crime, and criminal justice in the United States. In I. H. Marshall (Ed.), Minorities, migrants, and crime: Diversity and similarity across Europe and the United States (pp. 1–35). New York: Sage Publications.
Marshall, I. H. (1997b). Minorities and crime in Europe and the United Sates: More similar than different! In I. H. Marshall (Ed.), Minorities, migrants, and crime: Diversity and similarity across Europe and the United States (pp. 224–243). New York: Sage Publications.
Mendes, M. M. (2012). Race and racism: Controversies and ambiguities. Vivência – Revista de Antropologia, 39, 101–123.
Mendes, M. M., Magano, O., & Candeias, P. (2014). Estudo Nacional sobre as Comunidades Ciganas. Lisboa, Portugal: Alto Comissariado para as Migrações.
Moreira, J. (1999). Ciganos na Prisão: Um universo diferente? Temas Penitenciários, 2(2), 5–18.
Moreira, J. (2006). Estatísticas Prisionais 2006: Apresentação e Análise, Ministério da Justiça, Direcção Geral dos Serviços Prisionais.
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004). Mass imprisonment and the life course. Race and class inequality in US – Incarceration. American Sociological Review, 69(2), 151–169.
Rocha, J. (2001). Reclusos Estrangeiros: Um estudo exploratório. Coimbra, Portugal: Edições Almedina.
Rowe, M. (2012). Race & crime – A critical engagement. London: Sage Publications.
Seabra, H. (2005). Delinquência a preto e branco: estudo de jovens em reinserção. Lisboa: Alto-Comissariado para a Imigração e Minorias Étnicas.
Seabra, H. M., & Santos, T. (2006). Reclusos estrangeiros em Portugal: esteios de uma problematização. Lisboa, Portugal, Alto-Comissariado para a Imigração e Minorias Étnicas.
Sellin, T. (1928). The Negro criminal: A statistical note. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 140, 52–64.
Shaw, C. R. (1929). Delinquency areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas: A study of rates of delinquents in relation to differential characteristics of local communities in American cities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Silva, M. C. (2009). Classes Sociais: condição objetiva, identidade e acção colectiva. Famalicão, Portugal: Edições Húmus.
Tonry, M. (1995). Malign neglect: Race, crime and punishment in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Tonry, M. (1996). The effects of American drug policy on black Americans, 1980–1996. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 4(2), 36–62.
Tonry, M. (Ed.). (1997). Ethnicity, crime and immigration – Comparative and cross national perspectives. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Tonry, M. (2011). Punishing race. A continuing American dilemma. Oxford, England: Oxford Press.
Tournier, P. (1996). La délinquance des étrangers en France: analyse des statistiques pénales. In S. Palidda (Ed.), Délit d’immigration/immigrant delinquency. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission.
Tournier, P., & Robert, P. (1991). Etrangers et Delinquences, Les chiffres du débat. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Wacquant, L. (1999). ‘Suitable enemies’: Foreigners and immigrants in the prisons of Europe. Punishment & Society, 1(2), 215–222.
Wacquant, L. (2000). As Prisões da Miséria. Oeiras, Portugal: Celta Editora.
Wacquant, L. (2004). Punir les pauvres. Le nouveau gouvernement de l’insécurité sociale. Paris: Editions Dupuytren.
Wacquant, L. (2008). O grande salto atrás penal. O encarceramento nos Estados Unidos de Nixon a Clinton. In M. Ivone Cunha (Ed.), Aquém e Além da Prisão. Cruzamentos e Perspetivas (pp. 33–78). Lisboa, Portugal: 90° Editora.
Wacquant, L. (2010). Class, race & hyperincarceration in revanchist America. Daedalus, 140, 74–90.
Webster, C. (2007). Understanding race and crime. New York: Open University Press.
Western, B. (2006). Punishment and inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
Wirth, L. (1928). The Ghetto. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Wolfgang, M. E., & Cohen, B. (1970). Crime and race: Conceptions and misconceptions. New York: Institute of Human Relations Press.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank the Foundation of Science and Technology (Portuguese Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education) for financing this research through a PhD fellowship (ref. SFRH/BD/47010/2008) and for continuing to give financial support through a postdoctoral grant (ref. SFRH/BPD/102758/2014).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gomes, S. (2019). Prison, Ethnicities and State: Establishing Theoretical and Empirical Connections. In: Guia, M., Gomes, S. (eds) Prisons, State and Violence. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13077-0_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13077-0_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-13076-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-13077-0
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)