Abstract
This chapter presents the voice of young Karen B., a child of First Nations’ descent from southeastern Saskatchewan during the early 1970s. Drawn from letters preserved in her case file, it highlights how one Indigenous girl attempted to resist the ways she was portrayed and understood by powerful state actors. Using the backdrop of colonial images produced by the state to craft narratives of Indigenous savagery and state benevolence, this chapter also draws attention to how shifts in the usage of imagery nonetheless reveal the persistence of settler-colonial objectives of elimination. By reading against the grain of historical evidence we can see how Indigenous children were agents in resisting incorporation attempting to find ways to chart new identities that reflected their own experiences and origins.
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Notes
- 1.
A note on terminology: First Nations refers to the contemporary Indigenous social and political groups who are recognised by federal Indian Act legislation, and includes a wide array of linguistic and culturally distinct Indigenous peoples in Canada. The legal term ‘Indian’ is an historic term used to identify individuals who met certain federally established legal criteria and were descendants of the First Peoples in northern North America. The term Métis describes the contemporary descendants of mixed First Nations and European marriages in the fur trade period in Canada and the US who emerged as distinct social and political entities in the nineteenth century, and identify as Métis and maintain their distinctive Métis way of life. I use Indigenous to refer to First Nations, Métis and non-status Indian peoples in a way that denotes the common historic experiences of colonisation among global First Peoples.
- 2.
Megan Scribe, ‘Pedagogy of Indifference: State Responses to Violence Against Indigenous Girls,’ Canadian Woman Studies/Les Cahiers De La Femme 32, no. 1, 2 (2018): 48.
- 3.
Untitled letter and ‘The Things I Want,’ Library and Archives Canada, Accession 1998-01236-0, Vol. 60, p. 51, File E6575-1.
- 4.
Currently in Canada there is a crisis of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG). This long-standing issue has finally attracted national attention, and a national inquiry is looking into the causes of this ongoing problem. This article places the experience of an Indigenous girl at the centre of the inquiry, and as a scholar I stand in solidarity with the families of the missing and murdered. For the connections between colonisation and violence against Indigenous women see Andrea Smith, Conquest: Sexual Violence and American Indian Genocide (Cambridge: South End Press, 2005); and Dian Million, Therapeutic Nations: Healing in an Age of Indigenous Human Rights (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 2013); and most recently see Stella August et al., Keetsahnak/Our Missing and Murdered Indigenous Sisters, eds. Kim Anderson, Maria Campbell, and Christi Belcourt (The University of Alberta Press, 2018).
- 5.
For an historical overview of Aboriginal transracial adoption programs in Canada, the United States and Australia see Margaret D. Jacobs, A Generation Removed: The Fostering and Adoption of Indigenous Children in the Postwar World (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2014).
- 6.
On March 3, 1980 Karen was taken into the care of the Minister of Social Services. Letter B. Sprong to Director of Indian Affairs, September 25, 1980. RE: Mother J.S. Library and Archives Canada, Accession 1998-01236-0, Vol. 60, p. 51, File E6575-1.
- 7.
‘The Things I Want’ by Karen J.B. Library and Archives Canada, Accession 1998-01236-0, Vol. 60, p. 51, File E6575-1.
- 8.
‘The Things I Want’ by Karen J.B.
- 9.
There is a growing body of literature on the effects of residential schools on survivors and their children and grandchildren. This is referred to as intergenerational trauma, and is likened to the impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish survivors and their families. See Amy Bombay, Kim Matheson, and Hymie Anison, ‘Intergenerational Trauma: Convergence of Multiple Processes Among First Nations People in Canada,’ National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO) Journal of Aboriginal Health (2009), http://www.naho.ca/journal.
- 10.
James Daschuk, Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation and the Loss of Aboriginal Life (Regina: University of Regina Press, 2013).
- 11.
Arthur J. Ray, J.R. Miller, and Frank Tough, Bounty and Benevolence a History of Saskatchewan Treaties (Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2000), 226.
- 12.
Gerald Friesen, The Canadian Prairies: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 1987), 108.
- 13.
Friesen, The Canadian Prairies, 108–109.
- 14.
Quoted in Ray, Miller, and Tough, Bounty and Benevolence, 108.
- 15.
Harold Cardinal, Treaty Elders of Saskatchewan Our Dream Is That Our Peoples Will One Day Be Clearly Recognized as Nations, DesLibris. Books Collection (Calgary, AB: University of Calgary Press, 2000), 59, 63, http://www.deslibris.ca/ID/402754.
- 16.
Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy (Montreal, QC: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990).
- 17.
Doug Owram, Promise of Eden the Canadian Expansionist Movement and the Idea of the West, 1856–1900, Repr. with new pref. 1992, Reprints in Canadian History (Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, 1992), http://www.deslibris.ca/ID/417497.
- 18.
Sarah Carter, Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada’s Prairie West, McGill-Queen’s Native and Northern Series 17 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1997), 161.
- 19.
Mark Cronlund Anderson and Carmen L. Robertson, Seeing Red: A History of Natives in Canadian Newspapers (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2011).
- 20.
Anderson and Robertson, Seeing Red, 6.
- 21.
Anderson and Robertson, Seeing Red, 16.
- 22.
Walter Hildebrandt, ‘Aesthetics and History: Image Makers and Aboriginal People,’ Newest Review 16, no. 4 (April/May 1991): 10–14.
- 23.
Hildebrandt, ‘Aesthetics and History,’ 11.
- 24.
Kristine Alexander, ‘Childhood and Colonialism in Canadian History,’ History Compass 14, no. 9 (September 1, 2016): 397–406 draws attention to the ‘broad social forgetting’ of Indigenous children by historians of childhood in Canada.
- 25.
Neil Sutherland, Children in English-Canadian Society Framing the Twentieth-Century Consensus, DesLibris. Books Collection (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2000), http://www.deslibris.ca/ID/402358.
- 26.
Sutherland, Children in English-Canadian Society, 17.
- 27.
Sutherland, Children in English-Canadian Society, 62.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
A. Jones and L. Rutman, In the Children’s Aid: J.J. Kelso and Child Welfare in Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981).
- 30.
Cheryl Troupe, ‘From Kitchen Tables to Formal Organisations: Indigenous Women’s Social and Political Activism in Saskatchewan to 1980,’ in The History of Women’s Political and SocialActivismin the Canadian West, ed. Sarah Carter and Nanci Langford (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, forthcoming).
- 31.
J.R. Miller, Shingwauk’s Vision: A History of Native Residential Schools (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 1996); John S. Milloy and Mary Jane Logan McCallum, A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System, 2nd edition (Winnipeg, MB, Canada: University of Manitoba Press, 2017); Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Phil Fontaine, and Aimée Craft, A Knock on the Door: The Essential History of Residential Schools from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Edited and Abridged, Edited and abridged from the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada; Published in cooperation with the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation edition (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2015).
- 32.
See Sherry Farrell Racette, ‘Haunted: First Nations Children in Residential School Photography,’ in Depicting Canada’s Children, ed. Loren Lerner (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 2009) for her incisive analysis of the role of photography in perpetuating the residential school system.
- 33.
Gerald McMaster, ‘Colonial Alchemy: Reading the Boarding School Experience,’ in Partial Recall, ed. Lucy Lippard (New York: New York Press, 1992), 79.
- 34.
Lippard, Partial Recall (New York: New York Press, 1992), 166.
- 35.
Jeffery Montez de Oca and Jose Prado, ‘Visualizing Humanitarian Colonialism: Photographs from the Thomas Indian School,’ American Behavioral Scientist 58, no. 1: 145.
- 36.
Montez de Oca and Prado, ‘Visualizing Humanitarian Colonialism,’ 145.
- 37.
Montez de Oca and Prado, ‘Visualizing Humanitarian Colonialism,’ 146–147.
- 38.
Patrick Wolfe’s theory of settler-colonialism identifies the consistent ‘logic of elimination’ through assimilatory policies of enfranchisement, whether voluntary or involuntary, child removal policies, allotment schemes, replacing indigenous forms of kinship and genealogy, which is fundamentally different from colonialism. Patrick Wolfe, ‘Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native,’ Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (December 2006): 388.
- 39.
John F. Leslie, ‘Assimilation, Integration or Termination? The Development of Canadian Indian Policy, 1943–1963’ (PhD diss., History Carleton University, 1999), 9.
- 40.
Joint Submission by the Canadian Welfare Council and the Canadian Association of Social Workers to the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons appointed to examine and Consider the Indian Act. Ottawa January 1947. MG 28 I 10 volume 118 Canadian Welfare Council. LAC.
- 41.
Joint Submission by the Canadian Welfare Council and the Canadian Association of Social Workers, 9.
- 42.
Miller, Shingwauk’s Vision, 101.
- 43.
Allyson Stevenson, ‘Intimate Integration: A Study of Aboriginal Transracial Adoption in Saskatchewan, 1944–1984’ (University of Saskatchewan, 2015), https://ecommons.usask.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10388/ETD-2015-04-2021/STEVENSON-DISSERTATION.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y (PhD diss., 2015), see Chapter 4.
- 44.
Saskatchewan Government Publications, Department of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation, SW.1 Annual Reports, 1944/45-1963–64; SW1.1 Annual Report of the Department of Social Welfare of the Province of Saskatchewan, Annual Report 1959/60.
- 45.
Saskatchewan Government Publications, Department of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation, SW.1 Annual Reports, 1944/45-1963–64; SW1.1 Annual Report of the Department of Social Welfare of the Province of Saskatchewan, Annual Report, 1960–61.
- 46.
‘Proposed Adoption Exchange,’ Ottawa Citizen, May 19, 1963.
- 47.
‘Proposed Adoption Exchange.’
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
‘Indian and Métis Children Pose Adoption Problems for Welfare,’ Star Phoenix, June 30, 1965.
- 50.
March 7, 1967. Grant Application filed by Deputy Minister Sihvon and Minister C. MacDonald to the Department of National Health and Welfare Grants Division. Title of Project: Special Adoption Unit to Place Indian and Métis Children for Adoption, 1966–67 budget year. File 49 (4.9) Adopt Indian and Métis Program, AIM, 1967-1097 in R-935 Department of Social Welfare Files, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 51.
Grant Application filed by Deputy Minister Sihvon and Minister C. MacDonald.
- 52.
Letter from W.W. Struthers Director of the National Health and Welfare Department Welfare Grants Division regarding 557-1-10, Special Adoption Unit Demonstration Project File 49 (4.9) Adopt Indian and Métis Program, AIM, 1967-1097 in R-935 Department of Social Welfare Files, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 53.
Letter from O.H. Drieger to W.W. Struthers Director of National Health and Welfare Department Grants Division March 3, 1967 regarding 557-1-10, Special Adoption Unit Demonstration Project File 49 (4.9) Adopt Indian and Métis Program, AIM, 1967-1097 in R-935 Department of Social Welfare Files, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 54.
June 5, 1967, Project 557-1-10 Special Adoption Unit to Place Indian and Métis Children for Adoption File 49 (4.9) Adopt Indian and Métis Program, AIM, 1967-1097 in R-935 Department of Social Welfare Files, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 55.
The report on the AIM program states that ‘for several years prior to that time, the number of Indian and Métis children coming into the care of the Department was increasing by approximately 100 per year.’ From the Adopt-Indian and Métis: a joint federal-provincial pilot project. Government of the Province of Saskatchewan Department memo G. Joice, Chief, Special Services to Regional Directors and Adoption Supervisors re: Committee on Adoption Criteria Discussion Paper, June 3, 1974 from Collection R-935 Saskatchewan Department of Social Services, I-49 Adopt Indian and Métis Program, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 56.
Some guidelines: re: Adopt Indian Métis Change in Focus. File: I-49 Adopt Indian and Métis Program in R-935 Saskatchewan Department of Social Services, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 57.
Sound Slide Series, 1972–1978. File 5.11 Collection 935 Department of Social Services, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 58.
Carol Williams, Framing the West: Race, Gender and the Photographic Frontier in the Pacific Northwest (Oxford University Press, 2003), 29.
- 59.
Williams, Framing the West, 29.
- 60.
Quoted in Williams, Framing the West, 28.
- 61.
Mona Gleason, Normalising the Ideal: Psychology, the School, and the Family in Postwar Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999).
- 62.
See Allyson Stevenson, ‘Demanding the Right to Care for Métis Children in Saskatchewan: A History of the Métis Society Resisting Child Removal in the 1970s,’ in Metis Rising, Vol. 3, eds. Yvonne Boyer and Larry Chartrand (Regina: University of Regina Press, forthcoming).
- 63.
Struthers and Associates, File 5.16, Collection R-1721, Department of Social Services, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 64.
Struthers and Associates, File 5.15, R-1721, Department of Social Services Fonds, Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan.
- 65.
Letter, no title, no date. Library and Archives Canada, Accession 1998-01236-0, Vol. 60, p. 51, File E6575-1.
- 66.
On March 3, 1980 Karen was taken into the care of the Minister of Social Services. Letter B. Sprong to Director of Indian Affairs, September 25, 1980. RE: Mother J.S. Library and Archives Canada, Accession 1998-01236-0, Vol. 60, p. 51, File E6575-1.
References
Alexander, Kristine. “Childhood and Colonialism in Canadian History.” History Compass 14, no. 9 (September 1, 2016): 397–406.
Anderson, Mark Cronlund, and Carmen L. Robertson. Seeing Red: A History of Natives in Canadian Newspapers. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2011.
August, Stella, et al. Keetsahnak/Our Missing and Murdered Indigenous Sisters, edited by Kim Anderson, Maria Campbell, and Christi Belcourt. Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press, 2018.
Bombay, Amy, Kim Matheson, and Hymie Anison. “Intergenerational Trauma: Convergence of Multiple Processes Among First Nations People in Canada.” National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO) Journal of Aboriginal Health (2009), http://www.naho.ca/journal.
Cardinal, Harold. Treaty Elders of Saskatchewan Our Dream Is That Our Peoples Will One Day Be Clearly Recognized as Nations. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary Press, 2000.
Carter, Sarah. Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada’s Prairie West. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1997.
———. Lost Harvests Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990.
Daschuk, James. Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. Regina: University of Regina Press, 2013.
Friesen, Gerald. The Canadian Prairies: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, 1987.
Gleason, Mona. Normalising the Ideal: Psychology, the School, and the Family in Postwar Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
Hildebrandt, Walter. “Aesthetics and History: Image Makers and Aboriginal People.” Newest Review 16, no. 4 (April/May 1991): 10–14.
“Indian and Métis Children Pose Adoption Problems for Welfare,” Star Phoenix, June 30, 1965.
Jacobs, Margaret D. A Generation Removed: The Fostering and Adoption of Indigenous Children in the Postwar World. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2014.
Jones, A., and L. Rutman. In the Children’s Aid: J.J. Kelso and Child Welfare in Ontario. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981.
Leslie, John F. “Assimilation, Integration or Termination? The Development of Canadian Indian Policy, 1943–1963.” PhD diss., History Carleton University, 1999.
Library and Archives Canada, Joint Submission by the Canadian Welfare Council and the Canadian Association of Social Workers to the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and the House of Commons appointed to examine and Consider the Indian Act. Ottawa January 1947. MG 28 I 10 volume 118 Canadian Welfare Council.
Library and Archives Canada, Letter B. Sprong to Director of Indian Affairs, September 25, 1980. RE: Mother J.S. Library and Archives Canada, Accession 1998-01236-0, Vol. 60, p. 51, File E6575-1.
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“Proposed Adoption Exchange,” Ottawa Citizen, May 19, 1963.
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Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, June 5, 1967, Project 557-1-10 Special Adoption Unit to Place Indian and Children for Adoption File 49 (4.9) Adopt Indian and Métis Program, AIM, 1967-1097 in R-935 Department of Social Welfare Files.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Adopt-Indian and Métis-A Joint Federal-Provincial Pilot Project. Government of the Province of Saskatchewan Department memo G. Joice, Chief, Special Services to Regional Directors and Adoption Supervisors re: Committee on Adoption Criteria Discussion Paper, June 3, 1974 from Collection R-935, Saskatchewan Department of Social Services, I-49 Adopt Indian and Métis Program.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Letter from O.H. Drieger to W.W. Struthers Director of National Health and Welfare Department Grants Division March 3, 1967 regarding 557-1-10, Special Adoption Unit Demonstration Project File 49 (4.9) Adopt Indian and Métis Program, AIM, 1967-1097 in R-935 Department of Social Welfare Files.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Letter from W.W. Struthers Director of the National Health and Welfare Department Welfare Grants Division regarding 557-1-10, Special Adoption Unit Demonstration Project File 49 (4.9) Adopt Indian and Métis Program, AIM, 1967-1097 in R-935 Department of Social Welfare Files.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan Government Publications, Department of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation, SW.1 Annual Reports, 1944/45-1963–64; SW1.1 Annual Report of the Department of Social Welfare of the Province of Saskatchewan, Annual Report 1959/60.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Some guidelines: re: Adopt Indian Métis Change in Focus. File:I-49 Adopt Indian and Métis Program in R-935 Saskatchewan Department of Social Services.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Sound Slide Series, 1972–1978, File 5.11, Collection 935, Department of Social Services.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Struthers and Associates, File 5.15, R-1721, Department of Social Services.
Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan, Struthers and Associates, File 5.16, Collection R-1721, Department of Social Services.
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Smith, Andrea. Conquest: Sexual Violence and American Indian Genocide. Cambridge: South End Press, 2005.
Stevenson, Allyson. “Demanding the Right to Care for Métis Children in Saskatchewan: A History of the Métis Society Resisting Child Removal in the 1970s.” In Metis Rising, Vol. 3, edited by Yvonne Boyer and Larry Chartrand. Regina: University of Regina Press, forthcoming.
———. Intimate Integration: A Study of Aboriginal Transracial Adoption in Saskatchewan, 1944–1984. PhD Dissertation, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 2015.
Sutherland, Neil. Children in English-Canadian Society Framing the Twentieth-Century Consensus. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2000.
Troupe, Cheryl. “From Kitchen Tables to Formal Organisations: Indigenous Women’s Social and Political Activism in Saskatchewan to 1980.” In The History of Women’s Political and Social Activism in the Canadian West, edited by Sarah Carter and Nanci Langford. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, forthcoming.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Phil Fontaine, and Aimée Craft. A Knock on the Door: The Essential History of Residential Schools from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Edited and Abridged, Edited and abridged from the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada; Published in Cooperation with the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation edition. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2015.
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Wolfe, Patrick. “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native.” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (December 2006): 387–409.
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Stevenson, A. (2019). Karen B., and Indigenous Girlhood on the Prairies: Disrupting the Images of Indigenous Children in Adoption Advertising in North America. In: Moruzi, K., Musgrove, N., Pascoe Leahy, C. (eds) Children’s Voices from the Past. Palgrave Studies in the History of Childhood. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11896-9_7
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